2011年12月30日 星期五

Transformational and transactional leadership and innovative behavior: The moderating role of psychological empowerment

by

ANNE NEDERVEEN PIETERSE*, DAAN VAN KNIPPENBERG,
MICHAE´LA SCHIPPERS AND DAAN STAM
Erasmus University, Rotterdam, The Netherlands

from

Journal of Organizational Behavior
J. Organiz. Behav. 31, 609–623 (2010)

Innovative behavior is increasingly important for organizations’ survival. Transformational
leadership, in contrast to transactional leadership, has been argued to be particularly effective
in engendering follower innovative behavior. However, empirical evidence for this relationship
is scarce and inconsistent. Addressing this issue, we propose that follower psychological
empowerment moderates the relationship of transformational and transactional leadership
with follower innovative behavior. In a field study with 230 employees of a government agency
in the Netherlands combining multisource ratings, we show that transformational leadership is
positively related to innovative behavior only when psychological empowerment is high,
whereas transactional leadership has a negative relationship with innovative behavior only
under these conditions.

2011年11月24日 星期四

SELF-REGULATION OF CREATIVITY AT WORK: THE ROLE OF FEEDBACK-SEEKING BEHAVIOR IN CREATIVE PERFORMANCE

Author(s): De Stobbeleir, KEM (De Stobbeleir, Katleen E. M.)1; Ashford, SJ (Ashford, Susan J.)2; Buyens, D (Buyens, Dirk)1,3
Source: ACADEMY OF MANAGEMENT JOURNAL Volume: 54 Issue: 4 Pages: 811-831 Published: AUG 2011
Abstract: Using 456 supervisor-employee dyads from four organizations, this study examined how employees use one proactive behavior, feedback seeking, as a strategy to enhance their creative performance. As hypothesized, employees' cognitive style and perceived organizational support for creativity affected two patterns of feedback seeking: the propensity to inquire for feedback and the propensity to monitor the environment for indirect feedback. Feedback inquiry related to supervisor ratings of employee creative performance. These results highlight the importance of employees' self-regulatory behaviors in the creative process and show that feedback seeking is not only a strategy that facilitates individual adaptation, but also a resource for achieving creative outcomes.

Power, stability of power, and creativity

Author(s): Sarkar, P (Sarkar, Prabir)1; Chakrabarti, A (Chakrabarti, Amaresh)1
Source: DESIGN STUDIES Volume: 32 Issue: 4 Pages: 348-383 DOI: 10.1016/j.destud.2011.01.002 Published: JUL 2011

Abstract: Creativity is crucial for designing products and enabling innovation. Assessing creativity can help identify innovative designers and products, and support improvement of both. The literature variously defines creativity as a function of degree of novelty, usefulness, or both. Most methods for assessing creativity, however, focus only on assessing novelty of products. This research proposes a new method for assessing the creativity of products as a function of their novelty and usefulness. We develop individual methods for assessing novelty and usefulness of products. and then combine these into a method for assessing creativity of products. The proposed methods have been evaluated by benchmarking them, and other methods available from literature, against the collective, intuitive assessment of product creativity of experienced designers. (C) 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

IN THE MOOD FOR ENTREPRENEURIAL CREATIVITY? HOW OPTIMAL GROUP AFFECT DIFFERS FOR GENERATING AND SELECTING IDEAS FOR NEW VENTURES

Author(s): Perry-Smith, JE (Perry-Smith, Jill E.)1; Coff, RW (Coff, Russell W.)2
Source: STRATEGIC ENTREPRENEURSHIP JOURNAL Volume: 5 Issue: 3 Pages: 247-268 DOI: 10.1002/sej.116 Published: SEP 2011

Abstract:
Superior entrepreneurial creativity arises when teams are effective at both generating diverse alternatives and culling them to select the best solution. We develop theory about how the optimal group mood varies for the generation and selection stages of creativity. Using data from an entrepreneurial creativity task, we find that these stages require distinct collective moods. While an activated-pleasant mood promotes variance generation, idea selection requires a very different mood. Findings suggest that some teams fail to make transitions to the appropriate mood. We conclude by discussing implications for promoting entrepreneurial creativity. Copyright (C) 2011 Strategic Management Society.

Creativity and personality in professional dancers

Author(s): Fink, A (Fink, Andreas)1; Woschnjak, S (Woschnjak, Silke)1
Source: PERSONALITY AND INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES Volume: 51 Issue: 6 Pages: 754-758 DOI: 10.1016/j.paid.2011.06.024 Published: OCT 2011

Abstract: In this study three different groups of professional dancers (ballet, modern/contemporary and jazz/musical), which considerably vary with respect to the creativity-related demands involved in the respective dancing style, are compared with respect to psychometrically determined creativity, general mental ability and different facets of personality. Results indicate that modern/contemporary dancers, who are often required to freely improvise on stage, exhibited relatively high levels of verbal and figural creativity (as it was measured by means of psychometric creativity tests), followed by jazz/musical and finally by ballet dancers. With respect to personality, modern/contemporary dancers can be characterized as being less conscientious, higher on psychoticism and more open to experiences than the remaining experimental groups. In line with relevant research in this field, this study reveals some central personality characteristics of highly creative individuals which may be considered as important ingredients in the acquisition or actualization of exceptional creative potential. (C) 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Leadership behaviors and group creativity in Chinese organizations: The role of group processes

Author(s): Zhang, AY (Zhang, Ann Yan)1; Tsui, AS (Tsui, Anne S.)2,4,5,6; Wang, DX (Wang, Duan Xu)3
Source: LEADERSHIP QUARTERLY Volume: 22 Issue: 5 Pages: 851-862 DOI: 10.1016/j.leaqua.2011.07.007 Published: OCT 2011

Abstract:
In seeking to understand the factors contributing to work group creativity in Chinese organizations, we explored the roles of two different leadership styles (transformational and authoritarian) that Chinese leaders play in group creativity through influencing internal group processes, i.e., collective efficacy and knowledge sharing among group members. We tested our hypotheses with a sample of 163 work groups involving 973 employees in twelve Chinese companies. We found transformational leadership to relate positively but authoritarian leadership to relate negatively to group creativity, mediated by both collective efficacy and knowledge sharing among members within the group. We discuss the implications of these findings for research on group leadership, group creativity and cross-cultural management. (C) 2011 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

Paradoxical frames and creative sparks: Enhancing individual creativity through conflict and integration

Paradoxical frames and creative sparks: Enhancing individual creativity through conflict and integration
Author(s): Miron-Spektor, E (Miron-Spektor, Ella)1; Gino, F (Gino, Francesca)2; Argote, L (Argote, Linda)3
Source: ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR AND HUMAN DECISION PROCESSES Volume: 116 Issue: 2 Pages: 229-240 DOI:10.1016/j.obhdp.2011.03.006 Published: NOV 2011

Abstract:
Across industries, organizations operate in increasingly complex and uncertain environments. To succeed in such environments, organizations require their members to think creatively and integrate conflicting demands. We propose that the adoption of paradoxical frames-mental templates that encourage individuals to recognize and embrace contradictions-increases creativity. In four laboratory studies using different creativity tasks and different manipulations for eliciting paradoxical frames, participants who adopted paradoxical frames were more creative than their counterparts who did not. Our results suggest that the positive influence of paradoxical frames on creativity is due to the paradoxical relationship between task elements and not merely to their joint activation. This paradoxical relationship creates a sense of conflict in individuals and enhances their ability to integrate contradictions, which in turn increases creativity.

2011年11月16日 星期三

Personal relationships and innovation diffusion in SME networks: A content analysis approach

aDEA – Università G. d’Annunzio, Viale Pindaro 42, 65127 Pescara (PE), Italy
bIESE Business School – University of Navarra, Avenida Pearson 21, 08034 Barcelona, Spain

Received 3 November 2010; revised 3 October 2011; Accepted 9 October 2011. Available online 8 November 2011.

Abstract

Networks have been hailed as a third organizational form, between markets and hierarchies. One of the main characteristics of networks is the coexistence of different kinds of relationships, personal and professional among these. The presence of multiple types of relationships modifies inter-firm dynamics, creating a space where traditional innovation activities take place in an unusual way. The present paper investigates the role played by personal relationships within networks, addressing the following research questions: how do different types of relationships existing in a network of SMEs favour the development of economic activities? And do personal relationships play a role in supporting innovative activities? To answer our research questions, we analyzed qualitative data using content analysis methodology. Content analysis allows researchers to obtain an objective, systematic, and quantitative description of the manifest content of a communication. Based on this analysis, we conclude that the coexistence of personal and professional relationships shapes a unique context that alters the usual dynamics of innovation diffusion.

Highlights

► Diffusion of innovation is enabled by personal relationships. ► Strategic and innovative activities take place in different networks: the locus of innovation is not the locus of strategy. ► Innovative activities are widely distributed within networks involving multiple network dimensions. ► Content analysis to analyze data, a research method scarcely deployed in management studies.

Keywords: Networks; Personal relationships; Innovation diffusion; Content analysis

2011年10月28日 星期五

Radical and Incremental Creativity: Antecedents and Processes

Author(s): Gilson, LL (Gilson, Lucy L.)1; Madjar, N (Madjar, Nora)1
Source: PSYCHOLOGY OF AESTHETICS CREATIVITY AND THE ARTS Volume: 5 Issue: 1 Special Issue: SI Pages: 21-28 DOI: 10.1037/a0017863 Published: FEB 2011
Abstract: This study extends creativity theory and research by differentiating between 2 distinct forms of creative performance: radical and incremental. It also examines the differential effects of certain antecedents on these two forms of creativity. Results demonstrate that intrinsic motivation, problem-driven, and abstract theory-related creative ideas are associated mostly with radical creativity, whereas extrinsic motivation and ideas that are solution-driven and developed on the basis of concrete practices are linked more closely to incremental creativity. Theoretical and managerial implications are discussed.

2011年9月5日 星期一

Entrepreneurship within Urban and Rural Areas Individual Creativity and Social Network

by Lucio Carlos Friere-Gibb & Nielsen Kristian

The entrepreneurial dynamics of urban and rural areas are different, and this paper explores ’individual creativity’ and social network factors in both places. The probabilities of becoming an entrepreneur and of surviving are analyzed. The results are based on longitudinal data combined with a questionnaire, utilizing responses from 1,108 entrepreneurs and 420 non-entrepreneurs. Creativity is only found to be relevant for start-up in urban areas, but it does not influence survival in any of the two areas. The social network matters, in particular in rural areas. By combining the person and the environment, common entrepreneurship beliefs can be questioned and entrepreneurship theory benefited.

How are we creative together? Comparing sociocognitive and sociocultural answers

資料來源:Theory & Psychology August 2011 21:473-492.
  1. 作者:Vlad-Petre Glăveanu/ London School of Economics, v.p.glaveanu@lse.ac.uk

The present article aims to distinguish between a sociocognitive and a sociocultural approach to forms of “collective” creativity. While the first is well-illustrated by studies of group or team creativity, the second has generally supported investigations of collaborative creativity, most of them performed in the last few decades. The comparison between these two fields takes different levels into account, from the epistemological position adopted to issues concerning the theories and methods used. Special attention is given to reviewing models of creativity. However, although the literature on group creativity contains several cognitive models, there is a scarcity of such constructions for collaborative creativity. This is why a secondary aim of this material is to introduce a sociocultural theoretical framework and discuss its implications for developing situated models of creativity. In the end, the similarities and differences between the two paradigms are examined with reference to both theory and research and arguments are given for why it would be beneficial for sociocognitivists and socioculturalists to engage in a more consistent dialogue.

2011年5月5日 星期四

Predictors of Individual-Level Innovation at Work: A Meta-Analysis

Predictors of individual-level innovation at work: A meta-analysis.

By Hammond, Michelle M.; Neff, Nicole L.; Farr, James L.; Schwall, Alexander R.; Zhao, Xinyuan

Psychology of Aesthetics, Creativity, and the Arts, Vol 5(1), Feb 2011, 90-105.

Abstract

Numerous narrative reviews related to innovation in work organizations have been published, yet very few quantitative reviews have been conducted. The present meta-analysis investigates the relationships between four predictor types (individual differences, motivation, job characteristics, and contextual influences) and individual-level workplace innovation. Results indicated that individual factors, characteristics of the job, and factors of the environment were moderately associated with phases of the innovation process. Implications for future research opportunities are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)

2011年4月15日 星期五

開成興業 創意設計是 體現「文化」,打破區域審美觀

開成興業,是全球名列前茅的紀念章製造商;奧運、世足賽、F1賽車、上海世博會等,世界各大體育賽事和展覽活動的官方授權紀念章,都出自它之手。 以下的訪談內容是有關文創的議題,完整的訪談內容可以參考「經理人月刊」: 創意設計: 體現「文化」,打破區域審美觀

Q:取得獨家授權之後,組織會開始啟動哪些事?
A(任):第一步是評估獲利和風險。之後才會根據主辦方的計畫,來擬定銷售計畫。這幾年的經驗下來,我們已經能夠結合該次活動的授權模式、根據對當地市場的判斷、加上可用的知識產權設計元素,發展出一套自己的評估方法。 這一套產品開發流程,提高了產品開發的效率,也已經融入設計師的工作習慣當中。流程的第一關,一定是腦力激盪;會議上,大家只管不停地丟想法,討論徽章的樣式和主題。討論完之後,立刻整理、分類、分派工作;下次開會時,直接就討論草稿、改進。 比如說,北京奧運是在2004年正式啟動市場開發計畫,銷售高峰是2008年;4年的準備時間很充裕,賽前、賽中各主推哪些產品,都有一定的規畫。但是,準備時間短的活動,就比較有挑戰。2009年3月,我們跟上海世博簽約成為特許生產商,距離5月1日特許商品正式上市,只有兩個月。但這兩個月間,我們做了9種不同的零售銷售預判,再從裡面找出覺得可以投入的平衡點,最後一共開發了200款商品。兩個月從設計、生產到上市供貨,這是我們測試出的極限!

Q:所以,這是一種樣多、量大的生產模式?
A(任):「量大樣多」是我們最希望看到的(笑)。但實際上,有時候少量多樣,有時候多樣少量;該用哪一種模式,要根據準備期間、活動期間長短與消費族群來定位。 比如說,上海世博的活動期間有184天,也提早一年多開始市場開發,時間很長;加上民眾重複入園次數高達2.6次,如果沒有新商品刺激,消費者會疲乏,市場就會往下掉。這種狀況下,如果只推出少樣商品,就沒有競爭力了!所以我們會漸次地推動多樣產品上市。 但是,如果活動時間很短,去衝多樣,就會控制不了庫存、掌握不了生產效率。像只有3、4天的F1賽車,就必須精確地估計,多少量、多少款,一次就要備好量、推上去,因為根本沒有補單的機會!

2011年2月10日 星期四

白宮公佈美國創新戰略 提五項新計劃

2011年02月05日 20:36 稿件來源:香港中國通訊社

  香港中通社2月5日電 華盛頓消息:繼美國總統奧巴馬在國情諮文中提出“贏得未來”構想後,白宮4日發表“美國創新戰略”報告,具體闡述這一構想。

  報告重申了奧巴馬在國情諮文中提出的戰略目標,即贏得未來,保持美國在創新能力、教育和基礎設施等方面的競爭力。

  報告提出五項新計劃:發展無線網路,在未來5年內使美國高速無線網路接入率達到98%;改革專利審批制度,提高審批效率,將平均審批時間從目前 的35個月縮短到20個月;發展清潔能源,到2035年使清潔能源發電佔全國發電總量的比例提高到80%;實施教育改革,著重提高學生理工科技能力,在未 來10年內新培訓10萬名理工科教師;實施“啟動美國夥伴關係”計劃,幫助中小企業創業並提振就業。

  有分析稱,在共和黨掌控眾議院的情況下,奧巴馬上述新戰略涉及的大規模政府投資能否獲批還要畫上一個問號。

日本工作術女神勝間和代: 嚴選交換資訊的對手,刺激嶄新構想

整理‧撰文‧編輯 / 劉揚銘 攝影 / 賀大新
資料來源:經理人月刊

在《培養商業腦的7種組織力》中,勝間和代將「邏輯思考力」與「水平思考力」列為其中兩種。相較於邏輯思考集中於篩選、收斂出正確答案;水平思考著重於質 疑問題本身,拓展思考範圍。因此,勝間鼓勵讀者並用水平思考(橫軸)與邏輯思考(垂直的縱軸),成為具有「立體思考」的商業人。


在書第四章,她提出了在日常工作中,可以實踐水平思考的幾項方法。閱讀、對話,增加新構想的種子若等到要提出構想時,才急忙輸入資訊,是想不出什麼好點子的。勝間強調,平常就要不經意地蒐集素材,做為啟發新構想的種子,才能提升水平思考的效益,她建議:


1 多閱讀、與他人對話,以產生新想法。思考沒有結論,是因為輸入的量不夠。讀書時,應不斷思考內容,並試著與舊知識組合,嘗試找出相反的論調。面對新事務時,應嘗試賦予新的見解,跳脫既有成見。與人交談時,盡量吸收對方的觀點,久而久之內化成自己的構想。


2 構想成形後,盡可能多與他人討論,試探「市場評價」。勝間表示,有好構想的人與沒有好構想的人的差異在於,「有沒有讓剛成形的構想接受評價、回饋及反應,再將回饋做為新的資訊加以利用,並且改進構想。」愈快速、反覆地讓自己的想法接受評價,思考力將以等比級數增強。
向對的人請教,從失敗中學習


3 交換資訊時,要嚴選對手。和好的對手交談,才不會浪費時間,要是選錯對象,讓好構想遭到無意義的批評,反而會讓水平思考的幹勁消耗殆盡。勝 間認為,可以進行水平思考的對手,至少必須符合兩項條件之一:(1)有可能成為你點子的使用者;(2)擁有相關專業知識的人。針對自己正在構思的點子,如 果身邊不易找到專業人士,可嘗試以「點子的潛在使用者」的立場出發,試著思考「如果是○○○,應該會購買這項商品吧?他會怎麼評價這個點子」,有助於讓構 想更具體化。


4 構想愈是無法順利進行,愈要從失敗中學習修正。水平思考時浮現的構想,多半屬於嶄新的內容,失敗的機率也相對較高。然而,失敗卻也是激發人回頭仔細思考、重新學習、避免重蹈覆轍的重要動力。「失敗本身就是思考的過程,請務必培養這樣的想法,」勝間表示。

水平思考的技術:為什麼他想到的,我想不到?

經理人月刊
整理‧撰文‧編輯 / 劉揚銘


水平思考不是邏輯思考的替代品,而是互補品。運用水平思考迅速產生多種可能的觀點,能讓邏輯判斷變得更容易,就好像槍瞄得愈準,就愈容易打中靶心。


會議室裡,老闆面色凝重。「市場明明有需求,我們的產品也做得不錯,為什麼銷路還是不見起色?」問完問題,老闆開始環顧與會同事。


「拜託,千萬不要點我的發言啊,」你的眼神垂向桌面,心想:「你問我,我問誰呀?」要是被點名發言,大概也只說得出「可能跟市場整體有關吧」「我想業務員可以再加把勁」「我覺得⋯⋯是不是行銷那邊的問題啊」這種大家都想得出來的答案。


不過,總是會有聰明的同事,一開口就是:「我覺得這個問題可以分成3個角度來看,第一,銷售通路;第二,促銷手法;第三,價格策略⋯⋯。」一經他的分析,
問題豁然開朗。


「啊,沒錯就是這樣!為什麼我之前沒想到呢?」那個聰明同事有的資訊我也有,他陳述的邏輯我也一聽就懂,但為什麼他想到的,我卻想破頭也想不到?問題可能出在,我們都太專注於邏輯,忽略了水平思考(lateral thinking)。


邏輯思考沒教你的事
相對於邏輯思考是從一個既定的立場繼續「往下」推演、驗證,水平思考是善用既有訊息,往「旁邊」去嘗試不同的認知、不同的切入點,以得出新點子的方法。


過去,我們之所以不重視水平思考,多半是出於一種「後見之明的邏輯」──所有有價值的點子,在事後來看總是合乎邏輯(否則我們也無重看出其價值了)。


「我們於是斷言,一開始即運用優越的邏輯,應該就能想出那個主意,」水平思考的創造者愛德華‧狄波諾(Edward de Bono)在《嚴肅創意》(Serious
Creativity)中說明。


狄波諾舉過這樣一個例子:有個5歲的小男孩的朋友,讓他從兩枚硬幣裡選一枚帶走,其中一枚是「體積較大的『一元』硬幣」,另一枚是「體積較小的『兩元』硬幣」。


小男孩選了前者,朋友不但譏笑他是蠢蛋,還經常用同樣的遊戲愚弄他,而小男孩也始終學不會,每次都拿那個較大的一元硬幣。


有個大人好心告訴小男孩,兩元銅板比較值錢。小男孩聽完後很有禮貌地說:「我知道啊,但如果我第一次就選了兩元銅板,他們還會經常讓我選嗎?」

聽完小男孩一直笨下去的理由,你一定會恍然大悟,還反過來稱讚他聰明。這就是「後見之明的邏輯」,自己做出「因為裝笨,所以可以持續地選(一元)硬幣,比 一開始就拿走兩元硬幣,划算太多了」的因果推論,於是又落入垂直的邏輯思維,忽略了小男孩到底是怎麼想出「裝笨」這個關鍵策略的。


再回到文章開頭的情境裡,每個人都能看懂的邏輯推演,問題不在定價或促銷手法,而是必須提升量販店的營業額。問題是,那位聰明的同事究竟是如何想出「銷售 問題可以從這三點切入」的呢?「一個符合邏輯或顯而易見的想法,剛開始可能無法以邏輯方式看出來,」狄波諾說,我們需要先用水平思考發想出各種可能性,再 用邏輯思考一一驗證。


邏輯思考沒有告訴我們,那些事後看來合理的假設,最初是怎麼創造出來的。在下一頁的中,試著想想看你要如何填滿空白的方格?


思考兩階段:水平發想+垂直驗證
關於人類的思考方式,狄波諾將之分為兩階段:第一階段稱為「知覺篩選」(perceptual choice),亦即在腦中將資訊分門別類,把感知到的事物互相結合,產生各種概念與想法;然後再進入第二階段,運用邏輯有效地處理,驗證想法的正確性與 可能性。一旦我們決定採取何種方式看事情(例如,選定了關注領域、切入點與思考元素),邏輯就可以派上用場,但無論如何,邏輯本身不能決定我們看事情的方 式。


因此,水平思考不是邏輯思考的替代品,而是互補品。狄波諾在《創意有方》(Lateral Thinking forManagement)中解釋:「在第一階段有效率地應用水平思考產生點子,能讓事情在第二階段變得容易,水平思考不但不會減損垂直思考(即邏輯思 考)的效益,還會擴大它的用處,就好像槍瞄得愈準,就愈容易打中靶心。」


然而,許多人往往將第一階段思考視為理所當然,甚至完全不存在,假定自己最初採用的概念就是正確的,於是冒然進入第二階段的演繹工作,得出解決方案。「我 們總是在乎第二階段的演繹是否妥切;換句話說,我們認為思考是從第二階段開始的,」狄波諾提醒,「(然而)大部分的思考錯誤都是認知錯誤,而不是邏輯錯 誤。」


資訊科學中有句名言:「Garbage in, garbageout.」意思是,我們輸入電腦的問題與數據(第一階段思考),決定了電腦輸出的資訊是否有效、有意義。優越
的「處理」無法彌補「知覺」(perception:看待事物的方式)的不足。如果買不到好食材,一身好廚藝也無法做出好料理;水平思考,就是幫助我們迅速前往各個市場,取得鮮美食材的實用技巧。

商業世界,最需要水平思考
根據《嚴肅創意》,狄波諾將水平思考定義為「一套用來改變觀念與認知,並且系統性地產生新想法的技術,」目標在於讓我們以不同的方式看待事物、重組概
念和衍生各種選擇,探究各種可能與方法,而非只追求同一種方式。


日本管理大師大前研一在《思考的技術》中寫到,「大多數人在面對問題時,並沒有認真思考,而是單純地把『一時的想法』稱為解決對策,好像都不知道
為了解決問題該怎麼想、該用什麼方法想。」


水平思考就是突破這個思考困境的好工具,可以幫助我們避免邏輯思考的最大缺點──找證據支持自己出於第一印象、隨便想想、偏見或因襲傳統而形成的主張。運 用水平思考,我們可以在一頭栽進某個概念(並且找尋資料以證明自己是對的)之前,先抬頭看看四周,是否還有其他值得嘗試的選項。



波士頓顧問公司(BCG)資深副總裁內田和成在《假說思考法》中提到,「能比別人早一步看出問題所在,或是迅速提出解決方案,不在於分析能力或資訊蒐集
等技術層面,而在思考模式的差異。」

內田說的思考模式,就是BCG的「假說思考」法:在蒐集資料、著手分析之前,先不斷思考問題的全貌,提出暫時性的結論(即假說),再逐步驗證。這正是一種 兩階段思考的形式,先運用水平思考的技巧,迅速找出各種可能性,提出更精準的假說,直搗問題核心,之後再著手提出解決方案。


知名顧問勝間和代也在《培養商業腦的7種組織力》中寫到,「有效率地蒐集有限的資訊,巧妙地進行組合,在一定時間內導出與後續行動相關連的解答,這
就是商業思考的基本。」在她提出的7種商業思考力中,水平思考便是其中之一。

狄波諾在《在「沒有問題」裡找問題》(Edward deBono’s Thinking Course)中說明,思考對於商業界的重要性,遠大於社會中的其他行業:「在學術、政治界中,早就有足夠的證明顯示你是對的、而其他人是錯的,這就夠 了。但在商業世界中,你也許認為你總是對的,不過真實的考驗還在後頭,萬一市場不認同,那你就有麻煩了。」


在商業世界裡,環境瞬息萬變。自滿是會致命的!所以我們必須盡可能地蒐集訊息、運用創造力來解讀訊息、做出判斷,而「水平思考(產生新想法)+邏輯驗
證」,永遠是最有利的思考工具。


思考力和聰明才智無關,
是有技巧、可練習的

值得慶幸的是,水平思考是一種系統性的技巧,「可以學習、演練和利用,就像學會數學或邏輯技巧一樣,」狄波諾在《應用水平思考 法》(LateralThinking)中說明,水平思考和創造力息息相關,不過創造力是對結果的描述,水平思考則是對過程的描述;對於結果我們只能崇 拜,但對於過程,我們可以學習。而聰明才智也並不影響創意的能力,就像汽車的馬力再強,沒有優異的駕駛技術也是枉然。


每天三分鐘,持續運用水平思考的技巧,讓它成為一種態度與習慣,就能讓我們成為點子永不匱乏的思考者。


水平思考的用途:

❶想出各種可能的行動方案,並選出最適當的方案。
❷催生新產品、新(行銷)概念、新組織(概念)。
❸簡化那些逐漸變得很麻煩的想法(運用分割法)。
❹每隔一段時間,重新評估一些原本很適當的做法,例如降低成本、提出改善時。
❺提出假設、解決問題。
❻蒐集資訊。尤其是需要產生不同的角度和看法時。
❼用不同方法看數據資料,從中獲得最大量的洞見。
❽創意地回應別人提出的計畫、政策、想法。
❾預防尖銳的意見不合或兩極化,以及僵硬概念的產生。
❿斟酌各種決策的可能結果。


資料來源:整理自《應用水平思考法》,桂冠出版;《創意有方》,天下文化出版;《嚴肅創意》,長河出版;《在「沒有問題」裡找問題》,臉譜出版。

2011年1月26日 星期三

你會如何處理強項評估?

資料來源:Positive Psychology News Daily – Chinese 中文(繁)

By Guest Author on December 27, 2010 – 9:30 pm No Comment
黃穎怡 譯

作為向組織介紹積極心理學的顧問,我發現其中一個最容易作為起點的地方是使用強項工具,例如VIA或者 StrengthsFinder 2.0。

在過去的幾年,特別是最近,組織從國際大銀行機構至小型非牟利機構都在研究強項重點的力量。我為員工和管理人員提供為期一天的強項研討會,隨後與領導人會晤,導入強項的重點。
在我上個月對Jeremy McCarthy的 PositivePsychologyNews.com 文章實踐你的強項作出評論後,PPND的編輯要求我提供一些最大限度地利用強項工具的最好辦法。我很清楚你們也有很多偉大的想法,而我很期待閱讀你們的意見。下面是一些建議,我希望對你們匯報 VIA或StrengthsFinder的結果時有用處。(編者注:這也可以用於Realise2 assessment的結果。)

以正面的改變模式開始。你們大多數人可能已經這麼做了。David Cooperrider個人和組織朝著他們集中的方向前進的理論是我研討會的基礎。然後,我將正面的改變模型與缺乏模型作出對比,使人們集中於需要修正的問題。這將員工移往強項的方向,但亦設置了我後來與領導人關於他們組織的談話。

選擇性地使用研究。我熱愛研究。當我剛從MAPP 畢業時,我喜歡告訴所有人積極心理學所有的研究。我學了一個教訓。我選擇性地使用研究。大多數員工都不關心所有的研究,精心挑選的幾個研究已經能夠說明重點。我喜歡用Donald Clifton 常引用的1955年內布拉斯加學校的研究來揭開強項討論的序幕,因為它能引起大多數員工的震驚。這一切都取決於該小組。我提出一些研究,並有更多的準備,假如我需要它們。

於早期討論弱點。對強項工具的其中一個挑戰是大部分人和機構都仍然集中於弱點。忽視弱點或簡單地說假如你專注於強項弱點會自動消失是沒用的。我喜歡Marcus Buckingham的概念,一個人唯一要處理的弱點是他的「氪石」。氪石是能夠妨礙生活或事業的弱點。大多數人都接受這個主意。

指出「什麼」和「如何」強項的分別。今年年初有些人不接受工具確認的強項,他們認為強項是不「真實」的。這些強項並不是人們每天做的事。可是經過一番討論後,他們意識到這些工具指出了他們做事的方法。我現在讓人們寫下並與其他員工討論「什麼」他們做得好,他們的優勢和能力。然後我將「什麼」的強項從「如何」的強項區分出來,就如Peterson 和Seligman 指出的,是我們做事的方式,可應用於不同的任務。指出這些分別能幫助員工根據他們做得很好的任務與他們如何做任務來重新安排一天的時間。

鼓勵人們充分擁有他們的強項。 直至現在,工具得出的結果仍然頗為學術性。由於我研討會上大部分的員工都與他們的朋友坐在一起,我讓他們與朋友分享他們的結果。然後我鼓勵聽者去指出他們在哪兒見過該員工強項的證據。當人們發現別人在自己身上看到這些強項,他們開始真正擁有這些強項。

承認人們對強項的妒忌。我學到不要在組織中比較強項,因為這會形成「擁有」和「沒有」。我以往會作一個誰有什麼強項的表格,但員工會問高層人員有什麼強項,然後去想如何發展這些強項。我現在承認也許他們有些人對強項妒忌,而向他們展示Tom Rath三個擁有完全不同強項的CEO的對比,並提出是他們獨特的長處創造了成功。

使用強項。 員工想知道如何在日常生活中使用他們的長處。根據Buckingham的概念,我讓他們盡量重新設計他們的一天。他們將「什麼」強項放在每天的最佳時間作為充電器,或作為完成艱矩任務的獎勵。然後我讓他們指出如何用「如何」強項令每天或任務更有效率和更愉快。最後,他們或二人一組以另一名員工作出教練,或與他們整個隊伍作一組,看看他們能如何加強自己的強項。

加入強項。 我相信行動計劃。在當天的結束時,參加者訂下個人的行動計劃,明確指出他們會如何發展自己的強項;透過學習、練習和模仿等等,還有他們會如何運用強項。有些領導人收集放於密封信封中的行動計劃,在其後再發還給員工。最後我讓整個小組思考如何提醒大家去專注於及運用強項。

寫這篇文章讓我了解到有很多很好的方法能讓強項評估更有力量。不論你用的是哪個方法,透過在一對一或更大的群體中促進會議的進行,都能為正面的個人和群體改變設置舞台。
編者按:我們加入了Realise2,Alex Linley、Janet Willars,和Robert Biswas-Diener都提及到的強項評估工具,因為以上的方法除VIA和StrengthsFinder外也能用於Realise2。VIA 評估在,而StrengthsFinder 2.0 也包括在Tom Rath的數本書中,包括參考文獻中提及的書。

參考書目
Buckingham, M (2007). Go Put Your Strengths to Work: 6 Powerful Steps to Achieve Outstanding Performance. NY: Free Press.
Clifton, D. & Harter, J. (2003). Investing in Strengths. In K. Cameron, J. Dutton, & R. Quinn (Eds.),
Positive organizational scholarship: Foundations of a new discipline, pp. 111-121. San Francisco: Berrett-Kohler.
Cooperrider, D., Whitney, D. and Stavros,J. (2008).
Appreciative Inquiry Handbook, 2nd Edition (Book & CD) . Brunswick, OH: Crown Publishing, Inc.
Linley, P. A., Willars, J. & Biswas-Diener, R. (2010).
The Strengths Book: Be Confident, Be Successful, and Enjoy Better Relationships by Realising the Best of You.
Peterson, C. & Seligman, M. (2004).
Character strengths and virtues: A handbook and classification. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Rath, T. & Conchie, B. (2009).
Strengths-Based Leadership. New York: Gallup Press.

2011年1月24日 星期一

IDEA CHAMPIONS 2011: The 8 Levels of a Brainstorm Session

January 12, 2011
The 8 Levels of a Brainstorm Session

Most people think brainstorming sessions are all about ideas -- much in the same way Wall Street bankers think life is all about money.

While ideas are certainly a big part of brainstorming, they are only a part.

People who rush into a brainstorming session starving for new ideas will miss the boat (and the train, car, and unicycle) completely unless they tune into the some other important dynamics that are also at play:

1. INVESTIGATION: If you want your brainstorming sessions to be effective, you'll need to do some investigating before hand. Get curious. Ask questions. Dig deeper. The more you find out what the real issues are, the greater your chances of framing powerful questions to brainstorm and choosing the best techniques to use.

2. IMMERSION: While good ideas can surface at any time, their chances radically increase the more that brainstorm participants are immersed. Translation? No coming and going during a session. No distractions. No interruptions. And don't forget to put a "do not disturb" sign on the door.

3. INTERACTION: Ideas come to people at all times of day and under all kinds of circumstances. But in a brainstorming session, it's the quality of interaction that makes the difference -- how people connect with each other, how they listen, and build on ideas. Your job, as facilitator, is to increase the quality of interaction.

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4. INSPIRATION: Creative output is often a function of mindset. Bored, disengaged people rarely originate good ideas. Inspired people do. This is one of your main tasks, as a brainstorm facilitator -- to do everything in your power to keep participants inspired. The more you do, the less techniques you will need.

5. IDEATION: Look around. Everything you see began as an idea in someone's mind. Simply put, ideas are the seeds of innovation -- the first shape a new possibility takes. As a facilitator of the creative process, your job is to foster the conditions that amplify the odds of new ideas being conceived, developed, and articulated.

6. ILLUMINATION: Ideas are great. Ideas are cool. But they are also a dime a dozen unless they lead to an insight or aha. Until then, ideas are only two dimensional. But when the light goes on inside the minds of the people in your session, the ideas are activated and the odds radically increase of them manifesting.

7. INTEGRATION: Well-run brainstorming sessions have a way of intoxicating people. Doors open. Energy soars. Possibilities emerge. But unless participants have a chance to make sense of what they've conceived, the ideas are less likely to manifest. Opening the doors of the imagination is a good thing, but so is closure.

8. IMPLEMENTATION: Perhaps the biggest reason why most brainstorming sessions fail is what happens after -- or, shall I say, what doesn't happen after. Implementation is the name of the game. Before you let people go, clarify next steps, who's doing what (and by when), and what outside support is needed.